# Rules and Grammars

Writing a PEGTL grammar means implementing custom parsing rules.

Implementing custom parsing rules can be done either by

* combining existing rules and combinators into new rules through inheritance, or

* implementing a rule from scratch, i.e. writing a class with certain properties.

## Contents

* [Combining Existing Rules](#combining-existing-rules)
* [Toy S-Expression Grammar](#toy-s-expression-grammar)
* [Creating New Rules](#creating-new-rules)
  * [Simple Rules](#simple-rules)
  * [Complex Rules](#complex-rules)

## Combining Existing Rules

Combining existing rules is by far the more frequent way of creating new rules.

Here is an example that shows how existing rules are combined into a new rule through inheritance:

```c++
using namespace tao::pegtl;

struct integer
   : seq<
        opt< one< '+', '-' > >,  // ('+'/'-')?
        plus< digit >            // digit+
     > {};
```

It defines a new rule named `integer` that is a sequence of two parts, an optional character that can be one of `+` or `-`, followed by a non-empty repetition of a digit.
Using inheritance in this way incurs no run-time penalty.

See the [Rule Reference](Rule-Reference.md) for a complete list of all rules and combinators included with the PEGTL.

Recursion, or cycles in the grammar, can be implemented after a forward-declaration of one or more rules.

```c++
struct number
   : tao::pegtl::plus< tao::pegtl::digit > {};

struct addition;  // Forward declaration to break the cyclic dependency.

struct bracket
   : tao::pegtl::if_must< tao::pegtl::one< '(' >, addition, tao::pegtl::one< ')' > > {};

struct atomic
   : tao::pegtl::sor< number, bracket > {};

struct addition
   : tao::pegtl::list< atomic, tao::pegtl::one< '+' > > {};
```

When defining a large set of grammar rules in this way it can be advisable to include a `using namespace tao::pegtl;`-definition at the beginning in order to prevent the frequent repetition of the `tao::pegtl::` namespace qualifier.
This `using`-definition is often combined with the practice of confining a PEGTL grammar to a single translation unit, in which case there is no `namespace`-pollution, and the compile time is kept low by including the PEGTL only in the translation unit with the grammar.

A grammar is nothing else than a collection of rules.
In theory, as long as a grammar does not contain cycles, complete grammars could be implemented as a single, large rule.
In practice, this is not advisable as it greatly reduces the readability and testability of the grammar, in addition to being quite unmaintainable.

## Toy S-Expression Grammar

To give another example of what a small real-world grammar might look like, below is the grammar for a toy-version of S-expressions.
It only supports proper lists, symbols, comments and numbers.
Numbers are non-empty sequences of ASCII digits.

The rule named `file` is the intended top-level rule of the grammar, i.e. the rule that is supplied as template argument to [the `parse()` function](Inputs-and-Parsing.md#parse-function) in order to start a parsing run with this grammar.

```c++
using namespace tao::pegtl;

struct line_comment
   : until< eolf > {};

struct list;

struct list_comment
   : if_must< at< one< '(' > >, disable< list > > {};

struct comment
   : if_must< one< '#' >, sor< list_comment, line_comment > > {};

struct nothing
   : sor< space, comment > {};

struct number
   : plus< digit > {};

struct symbol
   : identifier {};

struct atom
   : sor< number, symbol > {};

struct anything;

struct list
   : if_must< one< '(' >, until< one< ')' >, anything > > {};

struct something
   : sor< atom, list > {};

struct anything
   : sor< nothing, something > {};

struct file
   : until< eof, anything > {};
```

In order to let a parsing run do more than verify whether an input conforms to the grammar, it is necessary to attach user-defined *actions* to some grammar rules, as explained in [Actions and States](Actions-and-States.md).

## Creating New Rules

Sometimes a grammar requires a parsing rule that can not be readily created as combination of the existing rules.
In these cases a custom grammar rule, i.e. a class with a static member function called `match()` that has to adhere to one of two possible interfaces or prototypes, can be implemented from scratch.

When implementing a custom rule class, it is important to remember that the input passed to `match()` represents the *remainder* of the complete input.
At the beginning of a parsing run, the input represents the complete data-to-be-parsed.
During the parsing run, many rules *consume* the data that matched from the input.
Consuming data from an input advances the pointer to the data that the input's `begin()` member function returns, and decrements the size by the same amount.

The PEGTL makes one **important** assumption about all parsing rules.
If a call to `match()` returns with `false`, then the rule **must not** have consumed input (for [complex rules](#complex-rules): only when the `rewind_mode` is `required`).
For performance reasons this assumption is neither ensured nor verified by the PEGTL.

### Simple Rules

In the simplified rule, `match()` is called with a single argument, the input.
It returns a `bool` to indicate success or (local) failure.
Rules with the simplified interface are called without the states as arguments.

```c++
struct simple_rule
{
   template< typename Input >
   static bool match( Input& in ) { ... }
};
```

Here is an excerpt from the included example program `src/example/pegtl/modulus_match.cpp` that shows a simple custom rule.
The - slightly artificial - rule `my_rule` uses three important `input` functions,

1. first `size()` to check whether the input is not empty,

2. then `begin()` to access the data and check whether the remainder of the first remaining input character `C` happens to satisfy `C % M == R`,

3. and finally `bump()` to consume one `char` from the input if the two above conditions are satisfied.

Note how the return value reflects the result of the checks, and how input is only consumed when the return value is `true`.
The remainder of the program checks that all characters of `argv[ 1 ]` are equal to 0 when divided by 3.

```c++
namespace modulus
{
   template< unsigned M, unsigned R = 0 >
   struct my_rule
   {
      static_assert( M > 1, "Modulus must be greater than 1" );
      static_assert( R < M, "Remainder must be less than modulus" );

      template< typename Input >
      static bool match( Input& in )
      {
         if( ! in.empty() ) {
            if( ( ( *in.begin() ) % M ) == R ) {
               in.bump( 1 );
               return true;
            }
         }
         return false;
      }
   };

   struct grammar
      : tao::pegtl::until< tao::pegtl::eof, my_rule< 3 > > {};

}  // namespace modulus

int main( int argc, char* argv[] )
{
   if( argc > 1 ) {
      tao::pegtl::argv_input in( argv, 1 );
      tao::pegtl::parse< modulus::grammar >( in );
   }
   return 0;
}
```

### Complex Rules

The complex calling convention gives a rule's `match()` member function access to "everything", i.e. some modes, the action- and control class, and all state arguments.
All of these parameters are required for custom rules that need to themselves call other rules for matching.

The signature of `match()` in a complex rule takes the following form.

```c++
struct complex_rule
{
   // Optional; explained in the section on Grammar Analysis:
   using analyze_t = ...;

   template< tao::pegtl::apply_mode A,
             tao::pegtl::rewind_mode M,
             template< typename... > class Action,
             template< typename... > class Control,
             typename Input,
             typename... States >
   static bool match( Input& in, States&&... )
   { ... }
};
```

#### Modes

The `apply_mode` can take the value `apply_mode::action` or `apply_mode::nothing`, depending on whether actions are currently enabled or disabled.
Most custom parsing rules will either ignore, or pass on the `apply_mode` unchanged; usually only the control interprets the `apply_mode`.

The `rewind_mode` can take the value `rewind_mode::active`, `rewind_mode::required` or `rewind_mode::dontcare`.
When `M` is `rewind_mode::required`, the custom rule's `match()`-implementation **must**, on local failure, rewind the input to where it (the input) was when `match()` was called.

When `M` is **not** `rewind_mode::required`, it is not necessary to perform rewinding as either some other rule further up the call stack is already taking care of it (`rewind_mode::active`), or rewinding is not necessary (`rewind_mode::dontcare`).
For example within a `must<>`-rule (which converts local failure, a return value of `false` from `match()`, to global failure, an exception) the `rewind_mode` is `dontcare`.

The following implementation of the `seq`-rule's `match()` shows how to correctly handle the `rewind_mode`.
The input's `mark()` member function uses the `rewind_mode` to choose which input marker to return, either one that takes care of rewinding when required, or a dummy object that does nothing.
In the first case, `next_rewind_mode` is set to `active`, otherwise it is equal to `M`, just as required for the next rules called by the current one.
The return value of `match()` is then passed through the input marker `m` so that, if the return value is `false` and the marker is not the dummy, it can rewind the input `in`.

```c++
template< typename... Rules >
struct seq
{
    template< apply_mode A,
              rewind_mode M,
              template< typename... > class Action,
              template< typename... > class Control,
              typename Input,
              typename... States >
    static bool match( Input& in, States&&... st )
    {
       auto m = in.template mark< M >();
       using m_t = decltype( m );
       return m( rule_conjunction< Rules... >::template
                 match< A, m_t::next_rewind_mode, Action, Control >( in, st... ) );
    }
};
```

#### Example

The following excerpt from the included example program `src/example/pegtl/dynamic_match.cpp` shows a complex custom rule that itself makes use of a state argument.
This is necessary to cleanly implement dynamic matching, i.e. where a (set of) string(s) that a rule is intended to match depends on some run-time data structure rather than some compile-time type (the latter of which includes all template arguments).

The aim is to parse a kind of *long string literal*, an arbitrary string literal that does not require escaping of any special characters, as is common in many scripting languages.
In order to allow for arbitrary content without escaping it has to be possible to choose a string sequence that is not part of the string literal as delimiter.

For this example we adopt the convention that a long string literal begins with `"[foo["` and ends with `"]foo]"` where `"foo"` is any non-empty string that does not contain a `"["` (quotation marks always excluded).

Please note that the following code snippets are not in actual source code order.

First we define a rule for the opening of a long string literal as explained above.

```c++
namespace dynamic
{
   struct long_literal_id
      : tao::pegtl::plus< tao::pegtl::not_one< '[' > > {};

   struct long_literal_open
      : tao::pegtl::seq< tao::pegtl::one< '[' >,
                         long_literal_id,
                         tao::pegtl::one< '[' > > {};
```

Then we implement an action class with a specialisation for what is the `"foo"`-part of the long string literal's opening sequence.
The action stores the matched string that corresponds to `"foo"` in a string variable that is passed as state argument.

```c++
   template< typename Rule >
   struct action {};

   template<>
   struct action< long_literal_id >
   {
      template< typename Input >
      static void apply( const Input& in,
                         std::string& id,
                         const std::string& )
      {
         id = in.string();
      }
   };
```

The rule for the closing sequence is similar to the opening, with closing instead of opening brackets, and with a custom rule to check for the `"foo"`-part.

```c++
   struct long_literal_close
      : tao::pegtl::seq< tao::pegtl::one< ']' >,
                         long_literal_mark,
                         tao::pegtl::one< ']' > > {};
```

The custom rule itself

1. first checks whether the input contains enough bytes to match the string stored by the action,

2. then checks whether the input bytes match the stored string, and

3. finally calls `bump()` to consume the correct number of bytes from the input when both checks succeed.

```c++
   struct long_literal_mark
   {
      template< tao::pegtl::apply_mode A,
                tao::pegtl::rewind_mode M,
                template< typename... > class Action,
                template< typename... > class Control,
                typename Input >
      static bool match( Input& in,
                         const std::string& id,
                         const std::string& )
      {
         if( in.size( id.size() ) >= id.size() ) {
            if( std::memcmp( in.begin(), id.data(), id.size() ) == 0 ) {
               in.bump( id.size() );
               return true;
            }
         }
         return false;
      }
   };
```

The grammar is completed with another two rules for putting everything together, and an action that stores the body of the long string literal in a second state argument.
In this case the rule `long_literal_body` is redundant, however real-world examples frequently contain a rule like `tao::pegtl::any` multiple times, and so it is necessary to give it another name in order to attach different actions to different uses of the same rule.

```c++
   struct long_literal_body
      : tao::pegtl::any {};

   struct grammar
      : tao::pegtl::if_must< long_literal_open,
                             tao::pegtl::until< long_literal_close,
                                                long_literal_body >,
                             tao::pegtl::eof > {};

   template<> struct action< long_literal_body >
   {
      template< typename Input >
      static void apply( const Input& in,
                         const std::string&,
                         std::string& body )
      {
         body += in.string();
      }
   };

}  // namespace dynamic
```

Given the main function...

```c++
int main( int argc, char* argv[] )
{
   if( argc > 1 ) {
      std::string id;
      std::string body;

      tao::pegtl::argv_input in( argv, 1 );
      tao::pegtl::parse< dynamic::grammar, dynamic::action >( in, id, body );

      std::cout << "long literal id was: " << id << std::endl;
      std::cout << "long literal body was: " << body << std::endl;
   }
   return 0;
}
```

...we can see the grammar in action in the shell:

```sh
$ build/src/example/pegtl/dynamic_match '[foo["[bla]"]foo]'
long literal id was: foo
long literal body was: "[bla]"

$ build/src/example/pegtl/dynamic_match '["fraggle"["[foo["]"fraggle"]'
long literal id was: "fraggle"
long literal body was: "[foo["
```

Copyright (c) 2014-2019 Dr. Colin Hirsch and Daniel Frey
